Substitution and ellipsis

Substitution

This consists of replacing a word or phrase with another one to avoid repetition and maintain cohesion. There are three types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal.

1. Nominal substitution uses a noun substitute (one/ones, that [of]/those [of])
   • using one / ones
     • “The train was crowded so we decided to catch a later one.” (Here one replaces train)
     • “The only jokes I tell are the ones that I hear from you.” (Here ones replaces jokes.)
   • using that and those instead of the one(s) in more formal contexts:
     • “The water for the factory was that from the local reservoir.”
     • “The books he read were those which he found in the old library.”
   • using that of / those of in formal contexts, especially in academic texts
     • “The head has a similar shape and size to that of a mammal.”
     • “It is widely known that the Russian educational system differs dramatically from that of western European countries.”
     • “The strength of our product is that it fits the customers’ demands – especially those of middle-aged consumers.”
     • “Therefore, I urge you to publish this letter and reconsider your opinions, which clearly do not reflect those of the general population.”
2. Verbal substitution using auxiliary verbs (do, be, have) and other substitutes such as so or the same.
   • “Surprisingly, her much older friend Joan got married before she did.”
     • Here did replaces got married.
   • “He decided to take a gap year before starting university, and his sister did the same.”
     • Here the same replaces decided to take a gap year before starting university.
3. Clausal substitution uses (do) so or not to replace a whole clause. This type substitution is especially useful in formal writing and is often underused by English learners.
   • “If you haven’t already begun studying for the exam, I advise you to do so.”
     • Here do so replaces begin studying for the exam.
   • “Studies have confirmed that studying vocabulary at regular intervals is highly beneficial. Indeed, doing so can significantly improve exam results.”
     • Here doing so replaces studying vocabulary at regular intervals.

Ellipsis

This is a special case of substitution, which consists of omitting the substituted element entirely, leaving the context to convey the intended meaning.

1. (one of) the + a superlative adjective without a following noun (it is implied)
   • “I am not quite sure if I agree that the car is the greatest danger to human life today, but it is without a doubt one of the greatest.”
2. ought to / should without a following verb where the previous main verb is understood
   • “If it were not for this measure some students would not get as much specialised help as they ought to.”
     • Here ought to is the ellipted form of ought to get.
   • “The prime minister does not think it is necessary to limit our industrial output in order to meet our emissions targets despite the abundance of evidence that we should.”
     • Here should is the ellipted form of should limit our industrial output.
3. anything but is a form of ellipsis used at the end of a statement to add emphasis. It is especially common in journalism.
   • “Everyone said he was very friendly, but I found him to be anything but.”
     • Here anything but is the ellipted form of anything but friendly.